The 1991 Referendum on Preserving the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)

A referendum on the future of the Soviet Union was held on 17 March 1991. The question put to voters was

Do you consider necessary the preservation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as a renewed federation of equal sovereign republics in which the rights and freedom of an individual of any nationality will be fully guaranteed?

In Kazakhstan, the wording of the referendum was changed by substituting "equal sovereign states" for "equal sovereign republics."

Although the vote was boycotted by the authorities in Armenia, Estonia, Georgia (though not the breakaway province of Abkhazia, where the result was over 98% in favour,^[3] and in South Ossetia),^[4] Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova (though not Transnistria or Gagauzia),^[5] turnout was 80% across the rest of the USSR.^[2] The referendum's question was approved by nearly 70% of voters in all nine other republics that took part.^[6] It was the only referendum in the history of the Soviet Union, which was dissolved on 26 December 1991.

Results

Choice	Votes	%
For	113,512,812	77.8
Against	32,303,977	22.2
Invalid/blank votes	2,757,817	–
Total	148,574,606	100
Registered voters/turnout	185,647,355	80.0
Source: Nohlen & Stöver

Participating republics

Republic	For		Against		Invalid votes	Total votes	Registered voters	Turnout
	Votes	%	Votes	%
Russian SFSR	56,860,783	73.00	21,030,753	27.00	1,809,633	79,701,169	105,643,364	75.44
Bashkir ASSR	1,908,875	85.9	269,007	12.1	43,276	2,221,158	2,719,637	81.7
Buryat ASSR	447,438	83.5	78,167	14.6	10,197	535,802	668,231	80.2
Dagestan ASSR	670,488	82.6	131,522	16.2	9,999	812,009	1,008,626	80.5
Kabardino-Balkar ASSR	290,380	77.9	77,339	20.8	4,888	372,607	489,436	76.1
Kalmyk ASSR	148,462	87.8	17,833	10.5	2,829	169,124	204,301	82.8
Karelian ASSR	317,854	76.0	92,703	22.0	7,544	418,101	551,644	75.8
Komi ASSR	412,842	76.0	119,678	22.0	10,883	543,403	797,049	75.44
Mari ASSR	333,319	79.6	77,239	18.5	8,041	418,599	525,685	79.6
Mordovian ASSR	459,021	80.3	101,886	17.8	10,724	571,631	677,706	84.3
North Ossetian ASSR	331,823	90.2	32,786	8.9	3,249	367,858	428,307	85.9
Tatar ASSR	1,708,193	87.5	211,516	10.8	32,059	1,951,768	2,532,383	77.1
Tuvan ASSR	126,598	91.4	9,404	6.8	2,494	138,496	171,731	80.6
Udmurt ASSR	622,714	76.0	180,289	22.0	16,137	819,140	1,103,083	74.3
Chechen–Ingush ASSR	318,059	75.9	94,737	22.6	6,216	419,012	712,139	58.8
Chuvash Autonomous ASSR	616,387	82.4	113,249	15.1	18,784	748,420	900,913	81.3
Yakut ASSR	415,712	76.7	116,798	21.6	9,483	541,993	688,679	78.7
Republic of Azerbaijan	2,709,246	94.12	169,225	5.88	25,326	2,903,797	3,866,659	75.10
Nakhchivan ACSR	31,328	87.3	3,620	10.1	918	35,866	174,364	20.6
Byelorussian SSR	5,069,313	83.72	986,079	16.28	71,591	6,126,983	7,354,796	83.31
Kazakh SSR	8,295,519	95.00	436,560	5.00	84,464	8,816,543	9,999,433	88.17
Kirghiz SSR	2,057,971	95.98	86,246	4.02	30,377	2,174,593	2,341,646	92.87
Tajik SSR	2,315,755	96.85	75,300	3.15	16,497	2,407,552	2,549,096	94.45
Turkmen SSR	1,766,584	98.26	31,203	1.74	6,531	1,804,310	1,846,310	97.66
Ukrainian SSR	22,110,899	71.48	8,820,089	28.52	583,256	31,514,244	37,732,178	83.52
Uzbek SSR	9,196,848	94.73	511,373	5.27	108,112	9,816,333	10,287,938	95.42
Karakalpak ASSR	563,916	97.6	10,133	1.8	3,668	577,717	584,208	98.9

A boycott campaign reduced the Against votes in Western Ukraine.^[10]

In republics not participating in the Soviet referendums

First, it must be noted an official referendum had been held in Estonia on 3 March 1991 whether to re-establish the Estonian republic that had been occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940. The result was 77.8% in favour of re-establishing the Estonian republic.^[11] Also Latvia held an official referendum on 3 March 1991 where the overwhelming majority voted to re-establish the independent Latvian republic.

Consequently, in these republics pro-Soviet front-organisations organised voluntary referendums without official sanction.^[12][13] Turnout of voting here was considerably less than 50% of the franchised voters of these countries, but this information was not included in the official statement of the Central Commission of the Referendum of USSR.^[14]

Republic	For		Against		Invalid votes	Total votes	Registered voters (not equal to franchised voters)	Turnout (based on registered, not franchised voters)
	Votes	%	Votes	%
Republic of Armenia	2,541	72.46	966	27.54	42	3,549	4,923	72.09
Republic of Georgia[15]	43,950	99.98	9	0.02	53	44,012	45,696	96.31
Abkhaz ASSR	164,231	98.5	1,566	0.9	747	166,544	318,317	52.3
Republic of Estonia	211,090	95.46	10,040	4.54	1,110	222,240	299,681	74.16
Republic of Latvia	415,147	95.84	18,015	4.16	3,621	436,783	670,828	65.11
Republic of Lithuania	496,050	99.13	4,355	0.87	970	436,783	582,262	86.11
SSR Moldova	688,905	98.72	8,916	1.28	3,072	700,893	841,507	83.29
Source: Direct Democracy

Additional questions

In several of the republics, additional questions were added to the ballot. In Russia, an additional question was asked on whether an elective post of the president of the Russian SFSR should be created. In Kyrgyzstan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan the additional question was on the sovereignty of their republics as part of a new union.^[2]

Kirghizia

In Kirghizia, voters were also asked "Do you agree that the Republic of Kirghizia should be in the renewed Union as a sovereign republic with equal rights?" It was approved by 62.2% of voters, although turnout was only 81.7%, compared to 92.9% in the Union-wide referendum.^[16]

Choice	Votes	%
For		62.2
Against		37.8
Invalid/blank votes		–
Total		100
Source: Nohlen et al.

Ukraine

Main article: Ukrainian sovereignty referendum, 1991

In the Ukraine, voters were also asked "Do you agree that Ukraine should be part of a Union of Soviet sovereign states on the basis on the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine?"^[17] The proposal was approved by 81.7% of voters.^[17]

Choice	Votes	%
For	25,224,687	81.7
Against	5,655,701	18.3
Invalid/blank votes	584,703	–
Total	31,465,091	100
Registered voters/turnout	37,689,767	83.5
Source: Nohlen & Stöver

At the same day a referendum in the Galician provinces Ivano-Frankivsk, Lviv, and Ternopil asked the three regions of the USSR about the creation of independent state of Ukraine.^[18][19] 88% of the voters in this refendum supported Ukraine's independence.^[20]

Uzbekistan

In Uzbekistan, voters were also asked "Do you agree that Uzbekistan should remain part of a renewed Union (federation) as a sovereign republic with equal rights?" It was approved by 94.9% of voters, with a turnout of 95.5%.^[1]

Choice	Votes	%
For		94.9
Against		5.1
Invalid/blank votes		1.1
Total	9,824,304	100
Source: Nohlen et al.

Soviet Union referendum, 1991
Do you consider necessary the preservation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as a renewed federation of equal sovereign republics in which the rights and freedom of an individual of any nationality will be fully guaranteed?
Results Votes  %  Yes 113,512,812 77.85%  No 32,303,977 22.15% Valid votes 145,816,789 98.14% Invalid or blank votes 2,757,817 1.86% Total votes 148,574,606 100.00% Registered voters/turnout 185,647,355 80.03%
Results by republic   Yes   No
Referendum held: 17 March 1991

English: Map of the Soviet Union showing how the republics voted in the 1991 referendum.

   95-100% Yes

   90-95% Yes

   85-90% Yes

   80-85% Yes

   75-80% Yes

   70-75% Yes

   Republic not participating

Ukraine: The Tug-of-war between Russia and the West

by Janvier T. Chando

The Union Moujik

by Janvier Chando, T